Psychology of Sex and Gender Essay

Discuss the claim there is a lot to gain from studying a topic in psychology from more than one perspective. Drawing on our understanding of language and meaning as well as the psychology of sex and gender. Different psychological perspectives lead to different theories providing diverse insights into the same issue i.e. language and meaning. They focus their enquiry in different ways and consequently have dissimilar objects of knowledge. Each perspective asks different questions, use different methods and data and produce therefore different theories. These perspectives can be complementary, conflicting and/or coexisting, whereby each perspective and theory provides a variety of ways of applying their findings to everyday psychological problems. By focusing on the social psychological perspective, this essay will evaluate the contribution of two central issues in psychology: language and meaning as well as the psychology of sex and gender. Social psychological perspectives emphasise the importance of investigating cognition by studying how meaning is created through participation and cultural practices and through language. The evolvement, acquisition and application of language used by humans, to express meaning and pursue goals, have been a topic of study amongst the various perspectives in psychology most notably evolutionary, cognitive and social perspectives. In researching language and the development of subsequent theories, language itself is used as a medium to investigate language. This methodological reflexivity is the source of conflict between social and cognitive perspectives on language when trying to determine to what extent, if any, the necessity of responding in language predetermines what is said. Social psychologists, more specifically discourse psychologists (i.e. Parker, 1992, as cited in: Cooper & Kay, 2007, p. 105), claims that in using language individuals do so in a social and historic context, with an audience and for a purpose. Individuals therefore will make assumptions about the knowledge, understanding and requirements of their interlocutors in an experimental setting which is a primary method used by cognitive psychologists to study the separate cognitive and underlying thought processes language represents in communication with others or dialog with the self. The social constructionist perspective, on the other hand, uses evidence from actual language used in day-to-day communication and therefore appears to have more ecological validity. With the use of discourse analysis, they manage to describe how individuals organise their talk and use particular strategies such as the creation of subject positions or constructions of the world, to achieve particular ends. Wieder (1974 as cited in: Cooper & Kay, 2007, pp. 104-105) illustrated the use of language to determine behaviour amongst newly released prisoners living in a hostel by employing a method called ethnomethodology (the study of how people do things) devised by Garfinkel (1967 as cited in: Cooper & Kay, 2007, p.103). Wieder found that the language used amongst the individuals ‘The Code’ does not explain their behaviour but rather was used by them to actively construct their social world and take appropriate action within it. Social constructionists therefore base their un derstanding of language on the concept that language can be seen as a vehicle for the socially formed and the sustained meaning that operates between individuals, in groups and societies (Cooper & Kay, 2007, p. 113). Although it provides a viable explanation for the use of language, it does not explain how language evolved over time or how it is being processed individually. Evolutionary psychologists (Lorenz, 1952 as cited in: Cooper & Kay, 2007, p. 78) offer an explanation about the evolution of language in claiming that language is an adaptive trait that has been acquired through the natural and sexual selection as well as being characterised by the ability of humans to create meanings through different ways of communication than that of other species. The complex interactive activation with competition (IAC) model devised by McClelland and Rummelhart (1981, as cited in: Cooper & Kay, 2007, pp. 91-94) and other studies (i.e. Moss and Gaskell, 1998, as cited in: Cooper & Kay, 2007, p. 93) is used by cognitive psychologists in formulating their perceptive that language is part of an information processing system that resides in the brain of an individual who creates meaning when hearing others s peak or when speaking themselves. The above three perspectives therefore provide an understandings of language based on their individual analysis being evolution, individual processing or social construction. Parker (1992, as cited in: Cooper & Kay, 2007, p. 105) described discourse as a set of symbolic meanings created through the use of language to construct an event or object in a particular way. This is apparent in the claim by social psychologists that individuals see the world as consisting of two basic types of people – women and men. This is partly accomplished through the social identity processes as theorised in the Social Identity Theory Tajfel (1919-82, as cited in Phoenix & Thomas, 2007, p. 62) whereby individuals develop descriptions which draw from the social group they see themselves belonging to, e.g. male or female. Individuals, according to SIT, then tend to make the most of the similarities to others in the same group (in-group) whilst minimising it with those outside the group (out-group) e.g. the notion of â€Å"opposite sex† (Hollway, Cooper, Johnston and Stevens, 2007, p. 151). Therefore Gender is one of the most important and powerful social categories by which individuals define themselves by. Bem (1981 as cited in: Hollway et al, 2007, p. 153) proposed in the Gender Schema Theory (GST) that femininity and masculinity are socially and culturally constructed dimensions absorbed by individuals to produce an understanding of gender to make sense of themselves and their behaviour. Social constructionists however, argue that gender is not a set of characteristics or properties acquired by an individual but rather that gender identity is constantly established and re-established by experiences, behaviours including actions on both an individual and group level resulting in ongoing throu ghout the lifespan of an individual. The study of sex and gender is therefore concerned with the complex interaction of nature and nurture in shaping similarities and differences between men and women. In studying sex and gender as a psychological fact (e.g. Clark and Hatfield, 1989, as cited in: Hollway et al, 2007) and biological (e.g. Fitch and Denenberg, 1998 as cited in: Hollway et al, 2007, p. 138) perspectives, give emphasis to the contribution of nature to the experiences of individuals by examining the biological and genetic structures relating to sex. Social constructionists acknowledge these influences but look at the importance of context and culture in constructing an understanding about gender whilst the psychoanalytic perspective incorporates biological differences as well as the social and cultural meanings. The difference between these approaches is demonstrated through conflict between them in relation to the social roles of men and woman and their personal relationships and behaviour. Biological and social explanations ‘nature’ and ‘nurture’ expose a fundamental conflict whereby social perspectives echo the underlying principal of psychoanalysts questioning individual group in claiming that biological explanations, and most recently evolutionary explanations (e.g. Hilary and Rose, 2000, as cited in: Hollway et al, 2007, p. 172), are extremely deterministic (Hollway et al, 2007, p. 171). Social constructionists explained that historical research underlines the fact that values inevitably underpin all knowledge; however, allowance should be made for new ideas incorporating change and cultural settings such as the role of women in society. Such methods used by various psychological perspectives in studying a specific psychological issue are often complimentary a s opposed to contrasting. In explaining gender social constructionists take historical and cultural situations of human beings into account focusing on the meaning-making activities of humans. In studying differences in the approach of sexual behaviour between men and woman at an American college, Clark and Hatfield (1989 as cited in: Hollway et al, 2007, p. 146) concluded that women who accepted dating invitations were less prone to accept invitations for private meetings, at the house of a strange in addition to the majority of women refusing such invitations for sexual intercourse. The results were the same when women were first guaranteed of the trustworthiness of the stranger thus accounting for fear of potential danger as a confounding variable (Clark, 1990, as cited in: Hollway et al, 2007, p. 146). Clark and Hatfield claimed from an evolutionary perspective that the results are consistent with the arguments of evolutionary psychologists about evolved optimal reproductive style through natural and sexual selection processes. The findings of Clark and Hatfield underline from a social constructionist point of view, the notion that sexual behaviour of men and women is filtered through their own individual cultural lenses. Psychoanalytical psychologists (e.g. Benjamin, 1990, 1995, 1998 as cited in: Hollway et al, 2007, p.164) argue that these external influences (e.g. through discourse and discursive practices) are over emphasised by social constructionists and therefore does not explain the capacity for resistance and change by individuals. Each perspective provides a valuable point of view however none is able to give a complete explanation of the findings of the study as each perspective is concentrating on its own theoretical ground when analysing the findings of a study. In conclusion the social perspective has provided a rich understanding of language and meaning and sex and gender. Nevertheless, the focus is only on social influences such as other people and discourses. It therefore lacks a general understanding of a whole topic. In every case other perspectives are needed to see the full picture of both, sex and gender and language and meaning. In addition of the methodology the experimental approach could be helpful to support or disprove the results which are gained from the hermeneutic approach. Overall, in terms of social influences and discourses, the social perspective has contributed to a great body of knowledge which is very important to understand all aspects of any topic. The other side of the coin is that the focus is only on social influences, the social environment and social constructions which limit a full understanding of different processes involved in the same topic, such as meaning-making of language. References Cooper, T, & Kaye, H. (2007a). Language and meaning. In T. Cooper & I. Roth (Eds.), Challenging Psychological Issues (2nd ed). Milton Keynes: The Open University Buchanan, K., Anand, P., Joffe, H. & Thomas, K. (2007). Perceiving and understanding the social world. In D. Miell, A. Phoenix & K. Thomas (Eds.), Mapping Psychology (2nd ed). Milton Keynes: The Open University Hollway, W., Cooper, T., Johnston, A. & Stevens, R., (2007a). The psychology of sex and gender. In T. Cooper & I. Roth (Eds.), Challenging Psychological Issues (2nd ed). Milton Keynes: The Open University

The Curse Of A Vivid Dream - 915 Words

The curse of a vivid dream The hero’s journey is theory by Joseph Campbell. It states that all great stories include the same characters that have to undergo seven stages that are the hero, herald, mentor, threshold guardian, trickster, shapeshifter and shadow. In the story Young Goodman Brown was once a great man. Now he sees everyone as a sinful and bitter person, how did this come to be? It all began one night when Young Goodman Brown had a dream that changed his life forever. In his dream he saw his wife and the good people of his town attend a Witches’ Sabbath. This changes Young Goodman Brown`s perception of reality and how he perceives everyone around him to be devil worshippers. The changes Young Goodman Brown goes through mentally, affect his character and how people of the town look at him. He is despised by all around him for the actions he took against the people of his town. He died a very lonely and joyless man. Young Goodman Brown was a newlywed, religious and pious man, who was setting off on a journey at sunset into a forest, where apparently he had an errand. He leaves behind his wife, Faith; parting with a kiss, he set off on his journey. As he entered the gloomy wilderness of the darkening forest, he had a strange feeling of vulnerability towards being easily attacked by the devil. On this journey Young Goodman Brown met an old man who suspiciously looks like his grandfather, he was holding a stick that resembled a serpent that had a devil like features.Show MoreRelatedComparison Of The Son Of Neptune And The Titans Curse898 Words   |  4 Pages The Son of Neptune and The Titan’s Curse comparison essay The two books The Titan’s Curse (2007) and The Son Neptune (2011) are both interesting books. Both are written by Rick Riordan and are based on Greek Mythology, the books share many close similarities but some differences as well through style of writing, the themes and also the setting. 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Past. Edward L. Thorndike Is Known As A Very Instrumental

Past Edward L. Thorndike is known as a very instrumental scientist within the field of psychology as he contributed well over 500 articles throughout his career. Thorndike earned a Bachelors degree from Wesleyan University in 1895, where he then decided to go to Harvard University with the intention to study literature. He then studied William James’s version of The Principles of Psychology, which he found interesting and enough reason switch his focus to psychology (Daniel, 2000). William James had apparently decided to stop studying experimental psychology, which influenced Thorndike’s decision to attend Columbia University instead. Columbia University appeared to have been a positive alternative for Thorndike as he was offered†¦show more content†¦He completed other types of experiments that included generalization and discrimination techniques to determine the limitations of learned associations (Stam, 1998). Ivan P. Pavlov’s father was a priest in R ussia and Ivan Pavlov began his studies in theology in a church school. Why move from God to Science? Betrayal! He began studying at the University of Saint Petersburg where he focused on chemistry and physiology. Known for his research with animals, he contributed a lot to the field of experimental medicine and to the field of behavior analysis. In 1904, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his experimental work regarding to digestive system (W. Horsley, 2012). Throughout his career, he remained ambitious. He was chosen to be a leader in multiple organizations including becoming the Head of the Department of Pharmacology of the Military Medical Academy and Director of the Department of Physiology of the Institute of Experimental Medicine. While he was a leader within those organizations, he studied the nervous system and contributed to the experimental field (Markov, 2008). 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When managers make compensation decisions without consulting the human resource department the salary structure tends to become very uneven and unfair promotion decisions also may be handled unfairly when the HR department does not coordinate the decision of individual manger. e. Expertise Now a days there exist sophisticated personnel activities that require special expertise.

Christian Philosophy Of Christian Theology - 935 Words

From childhood we observe, study, and even absorb our surroundings. These observations cultivate the person we become and educates us on how to approach life situations independently. Independence is the self-governing state of freedom to think and act as we desire. How we approach life events can be viewed from a philosophical and/or a theological perspective. This essay will compare different approaches in Christian theology to philosophy to see which study was more influential in our individual development. Christian theology is the study of Christian beliefs. There are four sources for this study including scripture, tradition, reasoning and experience. Scriptures are sacred writings that document historical events pertaining to Christianity. The Bible is the central location for the scriptures. Christians consider the Bible their source of truth and the reference material needed to handle all life events as a Christian should. There are various definitions regarding tradition however; one in particular lends itself best to Christian theology. Tradition is the continued sharing of stories, customs, or values to future generations by written or oral means. Tradition is passed down from generation to generation but, it is in vain without application. Tradition provides a sense of stability for Christian theology however it also can promote spiritual growth if allowed. Fiorenza (1984), noted that modern hermeneutics is being used to examine the source of ChristianShow MoreRelatedThe Theology Of Philosophy And Christian Theology917 Words   |  4 Pages There are four theology sources of theology that is scripture, tradition, reason and religious experience. The scripture is expounded with the context of public worship and is the subject of meditation and devotion on the part of individual Christian (McGrath, 2011). 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The development of theology in ChristendomRead MoreDat Based On The Information Given From The Book1686 Words   |  7 PagesBibliographic data: Based on the information given from the book (because not much of his biography is given online), Ed L. Miller is a professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies at the University of Colorado, Boulder. Stanley J. Grenz, on the other hand, is a Pioneer McDonald Professor at Carey Theologic al College, Vancouver, British Columbia. He is a former student of Miller’s. Stanley had his trainings in various parts of the world. He preached and gave lectures at churches, colleges, universitiesRead MoreEssay on The Influence of Christianity on Ancient and Modern Greece1657 Words   |  7 PagesInfluence of Christianity on Ancient and Modern Greece Problems with format ?From the earliest establishment of Christian churches in Macedonia, Achaia, Epirus, and Crete, to the expansion of the Orthodox Church, Greece has been a formidable landmark for development of Christianity throughout the world.? From its arrival to Greece with the first preaching of Paul, the Christian faith has undergone a unique assimilation into the cultural and philosophical traditions of the Greek people to createRead More Can Education be Classical and Christian? Essay1342 Words   |  6 Pageseducation be both classical and Christian? Many parents ask this question every year, unknowingly echoing an age-old question. Tertullian, an early church father, was perhaps the first to consider whether these two ideas are compatible when he asked, â€Å"What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?† The church fathers continued to wrestle with the question for centuries, most concluding that all ideas that are taken captive for Christ may be used profitably by Christians. Ex amining this ongoing conversationRead MoreThe Lifelong Goal Of Saint Thomas Aquinas1692 Words   |  7 Pagesof philosophy and theology, but at the same time show their symbiotic relationship with each other. Throughout his life Aquinas was known as a theologian but many of his works carry strong philosophical undertones as well. The beauty of theology is it can enlighten us through its leap of faith. Philosophy was required to precede theology. The truths laid down from philosophy are concrete and coherent. These philosophical truths are the shoes in which theology can walk. Without philosophy thereRead MorePaul Tillich’s Theological Method of Correlation Essay1180 Words   |  5 PagesPaul Tillich (1886-1965) was a major figure in twentieth-century theology. After holding several academic posts in Germany, he and his family moved to the United States in November 1933. He subsequently held teaching positions at Union Theological Seminary, Harvard Divinity School, and the University of Chicago Divinity School. The author of several well-known books, he is possibly best remembered for his three-volume Systematic Theology. The present paper is an attempt to give a summary of Tillich’s

Marketing and Nike free essay sample

Nikes excellence marketing strategies are their energy to achieve their market goals. Nike believes the pyramid influence that the preferences of a small percentage of top athletes influence the product and brand choice. PROS OF NIKES CORE MARKETING STRATEGY: Nike put heavily proportion in their marketing strategies and products deign. In order to sustain their dominance in the industry and retain their competitive advantages, Nike actively responds to the market trends and changes in consumer preference by adjusting their marketing strategies, the mix of existing product offerings, developing new products, styles and categories, and influencing sports and fitness preferences through various marketing strategies. CONS OF NIKES CORE MARKETING STRATEGY: Although Nikes marketing strategies had brings lot of positive implications to the company, but it will bring negative implications to Nike too. The negative implications that will identify in this assignment are high cost incurred, influence of spokesperson, and competitors. We will write a custom essay sample on Marketing and Nike or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page RISKS OF NIKES CORE MARKETING STRATEGY: Nike faces many risks when they use their core marketing strategies to achieve their goals and these risks can come from both internally and externally environmental circumstance. The risks will have a negative influence about Nikes future development, for example, the market share in the world, reputation, brand image, and customer loyalty. Question 2: If you were Adidas, how would you compete with Nike? Answer: There are two different tactics I can take when I am a #2 competitor going against the #1. I can do a direct attack, where I match everything the #1 does in terms of product, advertising, price and distribution. The chances of winning are slim, and If you were adidas, how would you compete with nike? With a portfolio as diverse as goggles, what are the company’s core brand values? What’s next for Google? Is it doing the right thing taking on Microsoft with the concept of cloud computing, and apple in the fight for smart phones?

Motivation and Organizational Behaviour

Motivation can be defined as a force that encourages and pushes an individual to perform to his fullest. Motivation is a very significant force that is required to finish a task or complete a goal. Motivation can be extrinsic like something that is done to earn a reward or avoid a punishment.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Motivation and Organizational Behaviour specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Cleaning the room to get a reward from parents is one example. It can also be intrinsic like something that is done if it brings pleasure and is enjoyable. For example taking part in a football tournament could be enjoyable and rewarding in terms of certificates and medals. I mostly get motivated with verbal praise rather than monetary benefits. Motivation can come in different types, and the one I find most effective is when someone believes in me and place all their trust on to me. I am a person who liked to get appreci ation when I put extra effort to meet targets. If I do not get appreciation, then I am more likely to lose motivation. I then feel that all my efforts have gone to waste as no one appreciated or even noticed the task I so brilliantly completed (Kinicki, 2008). I normally try to interact and keep a positive behaviour and attitude with my co-workers. I have learned that keeping a positive and friendly attitude is very important and leads to motivation. As people find me friendly, they always try to give me honest advice and correct feedback which motivates me. I believe that I was able to stay motivated because my co-workers have been supportive. I have seen such types of employees and know for sure how dissatisfied they are with their entourage (Pinder, 2008). My organization makes sure that employees interact with one another and that there is no one receiving special treatment nor is there anyone creating groups between employees. The organization believes that if employees work as a unit then they will be more efficient rather than working all by themselves.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For this purpose, they believe in job rotation. Every member of the organization gets to be a part of different teams so that he could spend time with them and get to know them. The organization believes that when the entire organization knows each other then there would not be any complaints or any jealousy for the others. The organization makes sure that all employees feel that they are equally contributing towards the success of the organization. There is no one small or anyone big. The organization where I am currently employed provides equal importance to each and every worker (Nelson Quick, 2008). More could be done as there is always room for improvement. The top management can play a vital role in motivating the employees verbally. I have noticed that some times the top management does not realise the power they have over employees. They are a source of information and employees look on to them as their idols. I speak this because that is how I feel and most of the members in my office feel. Employees tend to feel neglected when they are not motivated by management for putting extra effort at work. Their performance slows down ultimately affecting the output of the organization. Verbal praise from top management may allow the employees to become positive in every possible way. Reference List Kinicki, A. (2008). Organizational Behavior: Key Concepts, Skills Best. New York: McGraw-Hill Learning Solutions. Nelson, D. L., Quick, J. C. (2008). Understanding Organizational Behavior. Mason: Cengage Learning. Pinder, C. C. (2008). Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior. Hoboken: Psychology Press.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Motivation and Organizational Behaviour specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This essay on Motivation and Organizational Behaviour was written and submitted by user Lexie Pate to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Jazz in America essays

Jazz in America essays Jazz is a mixture of culture, rhythm, and blues. It is a melting of many different people and there heritage. This American musical form often-improvisational development by African Americans, and influence by both European harmonic structure and African rhythms. During the 1800 in Americas south, music was an integral part of the life of the plantation slaves of African decent. Plantation songs, spirituals, and field were a part of everyday life-to celebrate, to morn, to entertain, to commemorate, to worship, and to accompany the drudgery of the work. The music of the plantation blended with European-American music tradition to create the basis of blues, ragtime, and other musical forms from which Jazz evolved. Ragtime from 1880-1900 was one of the early musical styles that contributed to the development of jazz. This music was developed in New Orleans during the late 1800, it was composed primarily for the piano. It combined a 16 note based syncopated melody with the form and feel of a march. On the piano this was achieved by pianoist left hand playing a steady boom-chic bass and cord pattern, and the right hand playing the tune. Playing in this style was called ragging. Noted piano players of this style were Scott Joplin, Artie Matthew, James Scott, and Tom Turpin. The Blues from 1900-1920 was an important influence on the development of Jazz. A highly expressive vocal tradition, blue songs express story and emotions. The blues were not only a type of music, but a state of mind and the way of life for many Blacks during this time. This music was seen by Northern American and became very popular. This was the beginning of the jazz age with Louis Armstrong, the Charleston, and flowering dresses with no waistline. Louis Armstrong was the first important soloist to emerge in Jazz. In the 1920 in a studio recording he made his hot five and hot seven ensemble. He ...